Islam And French Colonial Rule In West Africa History Essay

Islam And French Colonial Rule In West Africa History Essay Following the European conquest of Africa there was a substantial expansion in both Muslim and Christian societies. Though Christianity was perceived by some as a machine of colonialism and part of a European civilising mission, taking Islam was on the other hand viewed as anti-colonial, reflecting a form of resistance rather than collaboration. Islam offered a sense of community during colonial rule when the continent was experiencing a time of rapid change and mobility. F admin sought to systematically manage the practice of Islam in their colonies in a way of which they could bring it into alignment with the F perspective of modernity and make Islam serve as a bulwark for the states authority. At same time officials half heartened efforts slavery, inconsistent labour cash cropping projects and arbitrary power by poorly trained and underfunded admin brought dramatic and unexpected changes in how comm. were org and how individuals understood their position in soc. West African Musli ms drew creatively on centuries of Islamic thought and soc experimentation to craft new identities and comm. out of the changes brought by F. Example was how followers of Yacouba Sylla gave a new meaning to the hollow and alien terms that colonial politicians spoke about such as freedom, dev and modernisation. They made them central themes in a mystical Sufi practice that looked little like the enlightenment-based liberal republicanism governors hoped to create or like reformist Islam promoted by modernisers elsewhere. (Hanretta 2009, 3) The terms accommodation and collaboration are commonly used by historians to describe the relationship between Islam and French colonial rule in West Africa. In Islam and Social Change in French West Africa, Hanretta states that in places like Senegal, Mauritiana and Mali, when successful in representing their version of Islam as being compatible with the dictates of colonial rule, they were given access to metropolitan power to use against other religious leaders for clients and patronage. This relationship could be seen as a collaboration of resources between the colonisers and the Muslim colonised, to maintain order and peace (Hanretta 2009, 138-139). Another traditional Islamic community were the Sufi Brotherhoods, in particular the Tijaniyya in Senegal, Mali and Guinea, who split into branches and networks that have cultivated family networks. Of the Tijani scholars there were who actively opposed French colonial rule in the 19th century, by the 20th century many became outspoke n collaborators of the colonial government (Heck 2007, 65). Heck and Hanretta mention Seydou Nourou Taal, grandson to al-Hajj Umar Taal, who contributed to and organised many Tijani jihad movements, whilst Seydou Nourou became one of Frances greatest Muslim intermediaries. When colonial occupation began, many Muslim leaders accepted European administration who agreed to grant them limited control over their communities; this was what part of what the Europeans thought was an efficient and cheap system of governance (Hanretta 2009, 60). These are examples of when Muslim leaders and communities chose to cooperate with the colonial regime and shows that areas under Islamic rule decided to accommodate French colonial rule and in some parts of West Africa, Muslim leaders obtained a peaceful relationship between the two. Brenner looks at the case of Agibu where the motivating ideology for al-Hajj Umar was reformist Islam, which opposed the civilising mission of the French colonial ideology. The relationship between Islam and colonial French rule is built on clashing ideologies and conflict. Brenner states that between the two world wars there was a confrontation between Tijani Sufism and French Islamic policy, and the major French goal with respect to Islam was maintenance of political stability. The French had realised by the second decade of the 20th century that their greatest threat to colonial rule in West Africa was Islam because it had the potential to unite large numbers of people to form resistance against European domination. The relationship therefore could be one of conflicting aims, where the French tried to impose rule among Muslims who did not want to be ruled by non-Muslims. The French were persistent, they promulgated a new native policy in 1909 where Governor General William Ponty e xpressed concerns that Muslims shouldnt govern non-Muslims and in 1911 it was decreed that all administrative correspondence, as well as judgements by native courts, should be written in French, rather than Arabic. These attempts to dissuade the spread of Islam failed however it showed that he wanted French colonial rule to monopolise the politics of Agibu and this meant reducing Islamic influence. This was similar to French Soudan where colonial military officers aimed to limit conversion to Islam (Mann 2003, 264). However, Islam grew more rapidly than ever, becoming the dominant religion of commercial centres in Soudan, where new arrivals that came to seek work in these towns converted to Islam. This chapter of Agibus history should be described as Domination and the French Challenge to Islam (Brenner 1984, 32-38). French Colonial rule in Agibu posed a threat to Islamic values and Islam posed a threat to colonial rule, creating a relationship of conflict. Robinsons explanation of the relationship between Islam and French colonial role in Senegal is a good example of both conflict and collaboration. The French werent able to accommodate rule within Muslim societies, they found it difficult to adjust and through practice and trial and error they did manage to exert a form of indirect rule over the societies. Their intentions behind this form of control was to cut French costs, whereby they used the local population to grow peanuts, pay taxes and in essence, maintain order. This however caused many of the Muslims to resent colonial chiefs and persuaded them to become marabouts that although abandoned their political powers they did encourage their followers to pay tithes but provided them also with an education and welfare as well as assurance. The French recognised the importance of marabouts in maintaining order and brought back Amadu Bamba (Muslim scholar and Sufi leader) from his exile who they had previously accused of plotting to w age a military jihad against the French (Heck 2007, 61-62). This shows collaboration between the colonial French and Bamba. They believed that he would help to stabilise the colonial economy and political order, he returned realising that French colonial rule would endure and that they had but no choice to accommodate (Robinson 2004, 182-196). After Mamba died the Murids became the dominant and economic force in the peanut basin and accepted colonial rule (Searing 2002, 128-130). In his book Sufism and Politics Heck goes on to say that Bambas return from exile not early pacified relations between his followers and the French colonial system but it developed a pattern of understanding and proved to be profitable for both sides (Heck 2007, 63). Here the relationship began by the French adjusting to ruling over Muslim societies and eventually exploiting them to grow peanuts and pay taxes to cut administration costs. This completely turned around when the French had to seek help from Ba mba and other marabouts to maintain order and therefore join forces with Muslim leaders and societies, thus forth displaying a relationship of compromise. It is important to be aware of what earlier French Islamic policy was in colonial Africa in order to examine the relationship between Islam and French colonial rule in West Africa. The presumptions made by French colonialists of Islam and Africans had implications on their reaction towards Muslim leaders and their subjects. Hanretta states that there is no doubt that the beliefs the French held about Islam, Africans and the nature of the colonial mission deeply influenced the reactions of the officials to Yacouba Sylla and his followers. Through a working, shifting compromise, Muslim leaders were tolerated and even patronised, but also carefully scrutinised. A lot of the action taken by the French in West Africa was based on experiences they had encountered in Algeria, for example the idea that Muslim networks, particularly Sufi tariqas could be used as intermediaries provided they were small and particularised, small enough not to gain enough power to compete with regional systems a nd African enough to protect themselves from North African and Middle Eastern influences. Harrison agrees that if we are to find a serious and sustained development of French policy towards Islam it is necessary to look north to Algeria where a definite consensus emerged at the end of the 19th century (Harrison 1988, 15-27). French policy in the 1920s and 1930s turned on the distinction between good and bad tariqas, during this period a the bad tariqa was the Hamawaiyyah and naturally once Yacouba became seen as a Hamallist preacher the administrators goal was to determine whether him and his followers shared the tendencies of this order (Hanretta 2009, 127-128). The relationship between Islam and French colonial rule in West Africa could be characterised by a set of corrections the French were making from the mistakes they had made in North Africa. Sense of cooperation was seen with the leftist Popular Front government in France and Yacouba. It is said that although they were only in power for two decades, their reformist approach abroad had last effects on French West African Policy. In 1936 the Popular Front government helped boost Yacoubas efforts to organise his entire community into a single labour pool. The government also sought to mend the rift between eleven-beads and twelve-beads to bring Hamawis under a more effective control. The most important was the dispatch of Seydou Nouro Tal to Nioro, he was grandson to the head of the powerful twelve-bead Tal family who were opponents of the Hamawiyyah. He was released to reconcile with Shaykh Hamallah (founder of Hamawiyyah) and essentially offer him and his followers minimal protection for their submission to Seydou Nourou (administrations chosen leader of West Africas Muslim population). Thereby the Popular Front were able to change the image of the Hamawiyyah from being s een as a part of a larger politique musulmane to being integrated into Frances hierarchical network of Muslim clients (Hanretta 2009, 95-96). De Coppets attitude to Sheikh Hamallah portrayed him as benevolent and liberally minded, Harrison in France and Islam in West Africa suggests that the initiative for his Muslim policy in French West Africa came from himself and the impression Islam had on him in Mauritania (Harrison 1988, 193). In Fetishizing Religion Mann speaks of how Cardaire, a military colonial officer was cautious of the growth of Saudi-sponsored Wahhabism as a threat to French Africa, serving as director of Soudans Bureau of Muslim affairs he supervised the state-sponsored Hajj, where he accompanied pilgrims to the Hijaz. The fact that the state sponsored people to go on pilgrimage shows that they were tolerant and didnt oppress them from continuing their religious practices (Mann 2003, 270). Accommodation didnt take place between Muslims and a coherent colonial regime but rather was a result of temporary and local constellations of power in which religious elites and administrators shared similar goals. Muslim entrepreneurs able to take advantage of the conflict within administrative depictions of Islam. In areas where the states control of religious institutions was strong, French officials were able to influence a process of creating an environment where certain forms of Islam and certain networks of Muslim leaderships and certain ways of responding to French presence would thrive. An important resource Muslim elites could seek to control was the production of knowledge about African Islam, knowledge that in turn directed the activities of the colonial state. It seems almost as if the relationship was defined by them using each others resources against them and then realising how they would succeed and what methods they would use to gain power and changing it, to suit them (Hanretta 2009, 138-139).

Defending the Meat and Poultry Industry

In the article â€Å"They Die Piece by Piece† Joby Warrick of the Washington Post tells a dramatic story of how animals are slaughtered and strongly advocates for further regulations on the meat and poultry industry in order to better protect animal rights. Thesis: While it may seem like the moral high road to support animal rights regulations, upon evaluating the effects of the proposed solution on our economy it will prove that the status quo remains the most viable option. In order to further understand this situation it is important to evaluate the impact the meat and poultry industry has on the United States economy, the effects of imposing further regulations upon it and the counter arguments to the issues presented by the animal rights movement. Body 1: impact the meat and poultry industry has on our economy Since the end of the second world war the United States has been the world's predominate super power with the efficiency of meat and poultry industries begin a driving factor in maintaining this status. As the world's super power the citizens of the United States have enjoyed an unprecedented amount of opportunities which are often over looked and taken for granted. The United States has an annual gross domestic product of over $15 trillion, the largest in the world and approximately 25% of the global economy (International Monetary Fund). As result of this the possibilities for entrepreneurs and changes in social-economic class are larger then anywhere else in the world. In order to achieve and maintain this level of dominance it is essential for the United States to continue and support its thriving industries. Currently the meat industry in the United States employes 6. 2 million people, totally $200 billion in wages and generates over $83 billion in federal and states tax revenue annually. Additionally, the economic impact of the meat and poultry industry equates to $864 billion annually, approximately 6% of United States' entire GDP (The American Meat Institute). To put this into perspective, Exxon Mobil, the largest company in the world produces $482 billion annually, only about half of the impact of the meat and poultry industry (Forbes). Were we to more tightly regulate the meat and poultry industries it would have a dramatically adverse effect on the United States economy and transitively on every American. Body 2: the effects of imposing further regulations upon it Were further regulations to be imposed on the meat and poultry companies, these added measures will increase overhead costs and these companies will be forced to lay off employees and increase the prices in order to maintain their currently level of profitability. This will adversely effect the economy and well being of America in two ways. First the newly unemployed people will no longer contribute income taxes which work to fund schools, hospitals, police and fire departments, along with ever other public service. Additionally these unemployed people will receive unemployment benefits and welfare which will further drain tax dollars away from essential programs. The second adverse effect will be the rise in food prices. Currently people in America spend less money on food then any other country in the world (Economist. com). As a result people in America have more disposable income to spend on unessential items and help the economy maintain its level of superiority. Rising food costs will effect every single persons level of disposable income and will effectively depress spending on every single other industry. In turn reduced consumer spending will force more layoffs and downsizing of companies and further perpetuate this cycle. As our government continues to collect taxes in a deficit compared to spending they will be forced to cut funding to social programs such as schools and hospitals and the general welfare of people will be effected. A perfect example of this concept is the 2013 Sequester following the failed fiscal cliff negotiations in which the federal government cut $83 billion in funding to national security and domestic programs including â€Å"health, education, drug enforcement, national parks, Hurricane Sandy relief and other programs† (Green). After reviewing the consequences of these proposed regulations it is apparent that well being of humans in America is far more important then the humane treatment of meat and poultry. It is also important to evaluate who will benefit most from these proposed regulations. If American meat and poultry companies are forced to raise there prices due to an escalated cost of production it will create an opportunity for foreign companies to penetrate into the US market. Meaning if regulations were imposed, consumers would switch to purchasing foreign meat and poultry. These foreign companies will be impossible to regulate and the goal of the proposed regulation will not be achieved. Additionally, US companies may move their operations outside of the country which will result in a massive rise in unemployment and loss in tax revenue. Body 3: counter arguments to the issues presented by the animal rights movement. Now lets evaluate the counter arguments to the issues presented by the animal rights movement. The first issues is that animals suffer during the slaughter house process. Human are carnivores and kill animals and eat them, which will obviously require some suffering on the animals behalf. Additionally, regardless of how nice the animals are or how nicely they are treated ultimately all of them are killed. It would be a waste of resources to invest in a product that is facing guaranteed destruction. It would not make sense to give a car a brand new paint job before crushing it at a recycling plant. It may seem unsettling to think about the slaughter house process but understand that life is not all sunshine and rainbows. Many industries practices far more shocking business practices and receive drastically less media attention. For example Foxcon the Chinese company that Manufacturers Apple products such as the iPhone and iPad, has been forced to install safety nets because workers are committing suicide as a result of overbearing work conditions (Moore). Realize these are real people dying and not livestock, yet activist seem to care far less as they write tweets from their apple iPhones. While this information is unsettling it is important to understand these are the measures necessary to maintain the lifestyle that Americans are accustom to. The United States has achieved its super power status by embarking on these efficient processes and without it we would be unable to enjoy the luxuries this country has available. The second issue proposed by animal rights activist is that meat and poultry plants are unsafe for workers. In Joby Warrick's article he says, â€Å"Improperly stunned animals contribute to worker injuries in an industry that already has the nation's highest rate of job-related injuries and llnesses† (Warrick 323). While worker safety is a very important issue, it is in the meat and poultry companies best interest to work to improve the safety of their employees. The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that â€Å"Over the last 20 years, injury/illness rates in the U. S. meat industry have improved by nearly 80 percent, as efforts t o enhance workplace safety have taken effect† (Bureau of Labor Statistics). While it is impossible to prevent all work place injuries, a reduction of 80% is a very impressive figure and shows that these companies are actively working to improve safety conditions. Additionally, a portion of the responsibility falls onto the employees who are aware of the dangers of working in a slaughter house presents. For the last 60 years the United States has been the world's predominate super power. We have achieved this level of success by supporting our thriving industries and creating the world's largest and most powerful economy. While the humane treatment of animals appears to be a strong ethical issues upon evaluating the side effects on our economy and the well being of our citizens it is apparent that further regulations should be avoided.

What You Should Do to Find Out About College Essay Samples Failure Before Youre Left Behind

What You Should Do to Find Out About College Essay Samples Failure Before You're Left Behind This essay is really strong. Most significantly, make certain your essays are really a reflection of you. If you are in need of a well-crafted essay, then you can count on us to deliver. These seven sample essays respond to a range of thought-provoking questions. Bridget's essay is extremely strong, but there continue to be a couple little things that could be made better. The way you start your application essay is vital to how well it is going to be received. In this way, it's going to be simpler to structure the content of your essay. Before you even begin writing the content of your college essay, there are a number of essay writing basic guide that you always need to bear in mind. This kind of essay typically consists of a minimum of 250 words. After the most important text, it is necessary to include a great conclusion. Share an essay on any subject of your pick. Always remember the intention of the Common Application essay. Where to Find College Essay Samples Failure Your college essay should contain information that are related to the instruction provided to you. Just because you've already written a college essay for a single university doesn't mean that it may also apply on your next applications. Writing a college admission essay can be quite tough. Writing the college application essay can be among the most daunting sections of applying to college. The clearing is restricted to the safe completion of the project construction and a few of the obstruction can be taken out by consulting the landowners. Apart from college loans, there's the stress of keeping a GPA to go into the university which you dream about. Those that are going back to school and educators generally speaking. Choosing where to go to college is an amazingly important choice. Your college counselor can offer valuable insight into how to boost your college application essays, so make sure to find feedback on your drafts whenever possible. School-based counselors have a great deal of students to advise and are extremely busy, so find guidance early and often. Colleges are more inclined to admit students who can articulate certain explanations for why the school is a great fit about them beyond its reputation or ranking on any list. Subsequently, students are currently being asked to be more creative in their work also. In the past, they typically had to write about the same subject. Upcoming college students might also be requested to compose a college essay for a portion of their first requirements. This article will appear at the criteria that generally makes for a terrific personal statement when giving you an enormous collection of successful essays that were accepted at a lot of different institutions. The point is to make certain you communicate your information in the most suitable way possible. When you start to compose your college application essay, think about all the things which make you the person that you're. The essay for Florida state university isn't required, but it's highly advisable. It is crucial to capture the interest of the admission tutors irrespective of how strict they may appear to be. Colleges are interested in a feeling of maturity and introspectionpinpoint the transformation and demonstrate your private growth. Tomake it impressive, you've got to consider an unusual reply to the question hundreds of different students are answering. If you need an excellent grade from your teacher it's important that you stick out from your classmates. Our writers always create unique content that is absolutely free from all grammatical error. You're able to fix mistakes and better your writing in later drafts. The better part of the essay employs standard English and English grammar. Stephen connects his previous experience to his existing maturity through self-knowledge.

Ba Trieu Warrior Lady of Vietnam

Sometime around 225 CE, a baby girl was born to a high-ranking family in northern Vietnam. We dont know her original given name, but she is generally known as Trieu Thi Trinh or Trieu An. The scanty sources that survive about Trieu Thi Trinh suggest that she was orphaned as a toddler, and was raised by an elder brother. Lady Trieu Goes to War At the time Vietnam was under the domination of the Eastern Wu Dynasty of China, which ruled with a heavy hand. In 226, the Wu decided to demote and purge the local rulers of Vietnam, members of the Shih Dynasty. In the uprising that followed, the Chinese killed more than 10,000 Vietnamese. This incident was only the latest in centuries of anti-Chinese rebellion, including that led by the Trung Sisters more than 200 years earlier. When Lady Trieu (Ba Trieu) was about 19 years old, she decided to raise an army of her own and go to war against the oppressive Chinese. According to Vietnamese legend, Lady Trieus brother tried to prevent her from becoming ​a  warrior, advising her to get married instead. She told him, I want to ride the storm, tread the dangerous waves, win back the fatherland and destroy the yoke of slavery. I dont want to bow down my head, working as a simple housewife. Other sources assert that Lady Trieu had to flee into the mountains after murdering her abusive sister-in-law. In some versions, her brother actually led the original rebellion, but Lady Trieu showed such ferocious bravery in battle that she was promoted to head of the rebel army. Battles and Glory Lady Trieu led her army north from the Cu-Phong District to engage the Chinese, and over the next two years, defeated the Wu forces in more than thirty battles. Chinese sources from this time record the fact that a serious rebellion had broken out in Vietnam, but they do not mention that it was led by a woman. This is likely due to Chinas adherence to Confucian beliefs, including the inferiority of women, which made military defeat by a female warrior particularly humiliating. Defeat and Death Perhaps in part because of the humiliation factor, the Taizu Emperor of Wu determined to stamp out Lady Trieus rebellion once and for all in 248 CE. He sent reinforcements to the Vietnamese frontier, and also authorized the payment of bribes to Vietnamese who would turn against the rebels. After several months of heavy fighting, Lady Trieu was defeated. According to some sources, Lady Trieu was killed in the final battle. Other versions hold that she jumped into a river and committed suicide, like the Trung Sisters. The Legend After her death, Lady Trieu passed into legend in Vietnam  and became one of the immortals. Over the centuries, she acquired superhuman traits. Folktales record that she was both incredibly beautiful and extremely frightening to see, nine feet (three meters) tall, with a voice as loud and clear as a temple bell. She also had breasts three feet (one meter) long, which she reportedly threw over her shoulders as she rode her elephant into battle. How she managed to do so, when she was supposed to be wearing gold armor, is unclear. Dr. Craig Lockard theorizes that this representation of the superhuman Lady Trieu became necessary after Vietnamese culture accepted the teachings of Confucius, under continued Chinese influence, which states that women are inferior to men. Prior to the Chinese conquest, Vietnamese women held a much more equal social status. In order to square Lady Trieus military prowess with the idea that women are weak, Lady Trieu had to become a goddess rather than a mortal woman. Its encouraging to note, however, that even after well over 1,000 years, the ghosts of Vietnams pre-Confucian culture emerged during the Vietnam War (American War). Ho Chi Minhs army included a large number of female soldiers, carrying on the tradition of the Trung Sisters and Lady Trieu. Sources Jones, David E. Women Warriors: A History, London: Brasseys Military Books, 1997.Lockard, Craig. Southeast Asia in World History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.Prasso, Sheridan. The Asian Mystique: Dragon Ladies, Geisha Girls, and Our Fantasies of the Exotic Orient, New York: PublicAffairs, 2006.Taylor, Keith Weller. The Birth of Vietnam, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.